Barriers to Receiving Help

One of the most common social issues that need to be addressed is the abuse directed against women, specifically of married women who fall under the status of battered wives. â€Å"Battered wives† are those women who endured physical abuse by their husbands. For most of the cases, battered women suffered from verbal, emotional and physical abuse. In such a scenario, there is a high possibility that their lives and those of their children are in danger. There is a need then for â€Å"battered wives† to ask for help from outside sources.However, like all other social problems facing modern society, there are internal and external barriers that interfere in the provision of effective help. Discussion Wife battering is a domestic violence prevalent in many households today. According to Schechter in his book A Framework for Understanding and Empowering Battered Women published in 1988 about one out of twenty-six American wives get beaten by their husbands every year, or a t otal of almost 1. 8 million per year† (p. 40 ).Although it involves only between husbands and wife in a family framework, interference from friends and relatives as well as the government social agencies is of necessity for the woman’s life, and perhaps of his children, may be at risks. Major researches since the early 1980’s had claimed that children exposed to marital violence had higher levels of psychological problems (Roberts, 172, 1996). A. Internal Barriers There are six common internal barriers that prevent battered wives from seeking help. 1.Wife blames herself for the violence There are wives who believed that they were the cause of the violence. In other words, they think they deserved to be hit or beaten because of something that they had or had not done. This is especially prevalent for women whose husbands kept on telling them that the reason they were beaten was because they did not clean the house enough, their cooking skills were â€Å"terribleà ¢â‚¬ , they had disobeyed him or that they were stupid for forgetting to do something that should have been done out of â€Å"common sense†.Oftentimes, when the abusive husbands are generally regarded as a good friend or good leader by his peers, battered wives will tend to believe all the more that the fault is on them. These wives are haunted with guilt and find it fitting to fix the problem by themselves ( Schwartz, 2007). 2. Wife’s financial and companionship dependence on husband Some abused wives stay at home as a fulltime wife and mother which means that they and their children are totally financially dependent on their husband for economic survival.If they do decide to leave, they think they will not be able to make it (Schwartz, 2007). Aside from their financial need, some wives were led to believe by their abusive husbands that there would be no other man who will be interested to take her if she would decide to leave him. This is a very effective tactic for women who have poor self-esteem. They fear the prospect of facing the future alone and would therefore stay with their violent spouses. 3. Wife believed husband’s promises to reformIn some cases, husbands who beat their wives will later tell their wives that they regretted what they had done and that the truth is â€Å"he loved her and promised that he will reform or that it will never happen again†. Women who still think they love their husbands would readily fall to this trap, hoping that it was the last beating or that their husbands will change in the future. This situation may go on for years especially if the cycle of violence happens between long intervals (Schwartz, 2007). 4. Wife believed her children needs their fatherWomen will sometimes not seek help from outside sources for fear this may aggravate the problem, anger her husband and would be the cause that he will leave her or that she and her children had to be advised to leave. Some women would not want an â€Å"absentee† father as she may thinks that her children needs him (Schwartz, 2007). 5. Wife believed the authorities cannot help Some â€Å"battered wives† may not actually believe that the authorities will be able to help them but will in fact, make a public spectacle of their suffering.They fear they may not be able to win the case and send their abusive husbands to jail. If such a case happens, her angry husband, who had now become more violent for disgracing his name, will still be able to harm her. 6. Fear of Husband’s threats Abusive husbands successfully prevent their wives from seeking help from authorities due to threats. They usually threatens to kill their wives , run after her wherever she may go, and if she seeks help from her friends or family he will also consume them with his wrath.The threats may sound fearful and convincing if the wives knew that their husbands had some form of criminal record or that he is using drugs ( Roberts, 189, 199 6). A. External Barriers â€Å"Battered wives† can ask for help from outside sources such as family, police and other legal authorities, therapists/psychologists, social workers, doctors as well as various community services and agencies. However, seeking outside help may not be such an inviting option for them due to the following external barriers: 1. Inability of the court to respond immediately to the problemSome appropriate authorities such as judges, trial court administrators, case managers and police may minimize certain cases of domestic violence as just a form of a lover’s quarrel would therefore discourage supposedly â€Å"battered wives† to follow through with their criminal or civil complaints. They may advise the victim to settle the conflict with their spouses by themselves (Roberts, 96, 1996). The court may also be overloaded with many legal concerns, the staff may not be adequate and the judges overworked, especially in large cities, so that it failed to promptly schedule a hearing and trial date.As a result, the victims get tired of waiting and went back to live with their abusive husbands. Oftentimes, when trial did arrive, women would usually recant their testimony (as husband was given the ample time to harass or manipulate her). This had actually happened to Mabely Lugo who recanted her accusations against her professional baseball player husband Julio Lugo by telling the police that he did not mean to hurt him(Parameswaran, 2007). 2. Friend’s does not want to interfere with the â€Å"problems† at homeFriends approached by the victim may feel that they do not have the right to interfere with domestic affairs and encourage the wife to make necessary changes so that her husband will not beat her up again (Roberts, 235, 1996). The wife may then get discouraged in sharing her problems to others and would eventually keep her suffering to herself. 3. No appropriate place to go to There are cases that battered women need to flee from their violent husbands but there were no safe places to go. Some areas may not have shelter homes from which they can run for protection.And if shelter houses were in existence, there were no adequate provisions and funding that will sustain their temporary stay. 6. Lack of Counselors and social workers Government agencies may not be able to provide the victims with necessary counseling and mental therapy to help them understand the situation, to help them assess their options and to help them gain the strength and stamina to stand by their decision if they do decide to leave their husbands for good or to file criminal complaints.Battered women are mostly confused, emotionally as well as psychologically traumatized and may not be able to make concrete wise decisions (Roberts, 188, 196). II. Potential Solutions to the Problems Women who are battered should not be silent. They should remember that no one has the right to hurt and abuse them either physically, v erbally or emotionally. To counteract internal barriers, the women should be educated with regards to the psychology of abuse and its consequences. Shelter homes are a very good potential solution to fighting off internal and external barriers for the victim.It must be safe (violent husband are kept out), with good provisions and adequate counseling programs. One good feature would be teaching women skills that would ready them for outside job when they eventually leave the shelter homes and support themselves. Educational programs should be funded by the government. I think the women should be kept for a certain longer period in the shelter homes( depending on the assessment of counselors ) just enough for them to gain self-esteem, skills and a new love for life!Counseling and therapy will be very helpful to restore their confidence but I think they should also keep in touch with their spiritual lives. Adequate legal professionals must also be provided for free for the victims. The se legal authorities should understand the gravity of wife battering for though the physical manifestation may be minor, these women may be falling apart psychologically. III. Conclusion The social problem of wife battering should not be look upon as minor phenomena.In this problem, the physical violence may only be a physical manifestation of the cruelty, verbal and emotional abuses practiced at home. The children may be at risks, too. But wives do not seek help due to their own particular internal and external barriers. These barriers must be overcome by education, counseling, prompt assistance of legal and police authorities and provision of shelter homes. References 1. Parameswaran, Lakshmy. (2007). Battered Wives Often Recant or Assume Blame. Women's eNews Inc. Retrieved January 14, 2008 from http://www. womensenews. org/article.cfm/dyn/aid/1468 2. Roberts, Albert R(ed. ). (1996). Helping Battered Women: New Perspectives and Remedies. New York: Oxford University Press. Place of Publication: New York. 3. Schechter, Susan and Gary, Lisa T. (1988). â€Å"A Framework for Understanding and Empowering Battered Women†. Abuse and Victimization across the Life Span, Baltimore: John Hopkins UP. 4. Schwartz, Dianne. (2007). Abusive Lies & Battered Wives. Innerself Publications.. Retrieved January 14, 2008 from http://innerself. ca/html/relationships/divorce–separation/abusive-lies–battered-wives. html

Hamlet Gray or Dorian Hamlet

Throughout the play Hamlet we see the themes of obsession and good vs. evil, Hamlet struggles with his inner demons until his tragic and untimely death. In the novel The Picture of Dorian Gray we meet a character that is very similar to Hamlet in his continuous struggles with his good vs. evil persona and obsession with youth. Many character is Oscar Wilde’s, Dorian Gray represent those of Hamlet. Both Dorian Gray and Hamlet who have love interest that both happen to die in the midst of Hamlet and Gray’s battle within them selves. All though not all characters are represented you see a pattern with the minor character that help show the tragic hero’s true intentions. Both Hamlet and Dorian Gray struggle with obsession through their lives. While Hamlet’s is more of an obsession with avenging his father’s death while Dorian Gray obsesses over youth and beauty. Hamlet is obviously the more likable character but is makes you wonder how did Oscar Wilde m ake his audience able relate to Dorian, a greedy, evil and selfish human being?Although Hamlet had a peculiar way of showing his love and devotion to his father the reader can still understand why he would seek revenge and obsess over his death, Shakespeare show’s us Hamlet’s true intentions with his famous and lengthy soliloquys. Dorian Gray’s entire philosophy is based off selfishness. Hamlet, unlike Dorian feels guilt for is crimes until the death of Claudius while Dorian Gray puts himself in a false sense of security, while his conscience often thinks about repenting he slowly falls deeper and deeper into evil with the help of The Yellow Book and Lord Henry.Good vs. Evil is large contrast in both novels; both characters suffer with their Evil side but only Hamlet makes an attempt to redeem himself. Towards the end of his life Hamlet attempts to apologize for the deaths of Laertes father and sister, Ophelia and Polonius, He is even upset about the death of La ertes whom he didn’t mean to kill. Dorian Gray on the other hand hardly mourns for the death of his ex-fiancà © Sybil, and take’s great relief in the  deaths of James, Sybil’s brother who comes to avenge her death, his admirer Basil and former friend Alan.While he tries to hide his hypocrisy by constantly false repenting his portrait continues to grow in horror and eventually shows the transformation of what an evil soul he has become. Hamlet, the tragic character who finally realizes toward the end of the play all the pain and suffering he has caused apologizes, dying and noble and honorable death. Dorian Gray on the other hand dies by his own hand, killing himself by stabbing, a death that is neither honorable nor noble.Although the reader could see that Dorian Gray’s last action before death is his way of showing guilt. He can no longer stand the stain on his empty and black soul and kill’s himself, finally showing the true Dorian Gray. Doria n and Hamlet both resemble the obsessive and even murderous side but where they differ is that Hamlet has a conscious unlike his counterpart, Dorian Gray

Anthropology, psychology, history, sociology, education, political Research Paper

Anthropology, psychology, history, sociology, education, political science, gender studies, economics, legal studies - Research Paper Example The word slum connotes an area where no ethnic community dominates. Poverty levels are high in slums, barrios and ghettos. It should be noted that not all African- American and Hispanic neighborhoods are poor. Discussions of underclass associate the residents of those inner cities with certain types of behaviors and attitudes. Excessive focus on poorest inner cities can redirect attention from the broader structural aspect of poverty. As a result they may fail to see the important contributions to reducing poverty that straightforward measures like Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) can achieve. Painting a picture of obstinate poverty in inner cities can cause hopelessness among policy makers Most alarming social evils in the society, ranging from use and sale of illegal drug to violence, take place in the inner cities of America. Even though today poverty in the inner cities of America is still a major concern, most Americans do not talk about it. However, when asked about poverty directly, many people will admit that poverty, especially in inner cities of America, is still a major concern. Poverty is a complex phenomenon which is hard to define. It is also difficult to differentiate forms, causes and consequences of poverty. Further, many people do not agree why poverty is a problem in America. Neither do they agree on the causes or consequences. It is therefore difficult to agree on a solution. There are those people who believe the poor are responsible for their condition. Mostly, people who feel the poor are responsible for their circumstances are the middle and upper income earners. They believe the poor can change their circumstances by working hard. This class of Americans feel poor people should not receive welfare benefits from the government. The middle and upper class Americans are careful to avoid working, living or even driving through the inner cities. Inner cities

History of baseball Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

History of baseball - Essay Example History informs that the first Chadwick’s encounter with baseball was in New York, in 1856 while still a young reporter on cricket. The specific incident happened while Chadwick was watching a cricket match between Gotham clubs and New York's Eagle. As a writer and a journalist, Chadwick focused the attention on baseball soon after joining Clipper, in 1857, another team from New York. He was thereafter hired to be providing other New York papers with baseball coverage; such papers included the Sunday Mercury. Chadwick, a professional writer and keen amateur statistician, assisted in the effort to sculpt the then public perception regarding the baseball game. He also provided the recording basis for the achievements of various players and teams; organized the baseball statistical form. Henry Chadwick made an edition of the pioneer baseball guide to be on public sale, The Beadle Baseball Player.3 He also edited the Reach and Spalding annual guides within a few years’ span ; he thus promoted the baseball game in this very capacity. He also influenced the then-infant manner regarding sports journalism. Additionally, he served with the baseball committee of rules, as well as he influenced the baseball game itself. In the guide Beadle guide, of 1861, Chadwick recorded the respective totals of all baseball games played, runs, outs, strikeouts for hitters upon prominent clubs, home runs, and strikeouts; this was the initial database of its sort. Henry Chadwick’s goal was to generate numerical evidence which would give prove of the help given by each player in hurting another team in order to win. In 1867, Chadwick accompanied the Washington D.C.’s National base Ball Club during their major inaugural national tour; he joined the tour as an official scorer. In 1874, he was a key figure in organizing a tour to England; of the same kind, including both the baseball and cricket games. In his journalism role, Chadwick campaigned against every detri mental effect on the games of gambling and alcohol. Although Chadwick and Albert Spalding were friends, Chadwick rose against the attempts of having Abner Doubleday declared as the baseball’s inventor. Chadwick is quoted to have stated, "He means well"; he continued -"but he don't know". Chadwick was awarded with baseball box score devised awards (with the cricket’s scorecard adaptation) in reporting baseball game events. The first score, in this regard, was a nine columns and nine rows grid for players and innings respectively. The initial box scores created the usual puzzling strikeout abbreviation, with "K" - "K" taking the "struck" in "struck out" final initials. The box score’s structure as well as the basic has indicated just a little change since the Chadwick’s earliest. Henry Chadwick is additionally credited with awards including statistical measures such earned run average and batting average. Ironically, the concept of ERA did not originate fro m the goal used in measuring the worth of pitcher, rather to help in differentiating the runs made through the batting hits (skill) and lack (deficiency) of fielding errors (skill). Chadwick is as well

Causal Analysis of Will Dropouts Save America Research Paper

Causal Analysis of Will Dropouts Save America - Research Paper Example † However, while Ellsberg commits to this type of sentiments of the present and expresses sold-out support for the seemingly majestic concretized idea in start-up entrepreneurship comprised mainly of prominent college dropouts, does it ever occur to him to ponder on how the world would look with money-driven human beings who act, talk, treat, and think like some crazy engine for dough all the time? For one, having thought ahead of the possible scenarios with that and what I would most likely feel about each of them, I am rather afraid of acquiring much trouble in coping with that kind of future Ellsberg insists in his sphere of change and investments. Perhaps we need not be upset with the way he perceives how economic conflicts, particularly the issues on unemployment, ought to be taken care of in the light of modifying an aspect of educational system so as to snap out rigidity in the curriculum. Maybe it is through this curricular flexibility that we can opt to find hope and r ealize that exploring beyond the conventional academic realms enables studying individuals to learn the remarkable key to economic potentials and thereby succeed with the targeted growth in professional goals. This is all fine and to some extent, relieving to know, but just because we are in dire necessity of rectifying certain directions with the traditional approach does not have to mean we must abolish proper education altogether and become entrepreneurs whether or not we are inclined to be. What Ellsberg’s paradigm appears to lack in understanding is that in truth, people by nature are free wanderers seeking true knowledge despite socio-political weather and economic conditions. Regardless of age and period, history has made us observe how indispensable an asset critical thinking is for the well-being of mankind as citizenry and as an entire nation. There can be no critical or creative thinking without valuable learning and there can be no valuable learning without an ins titution that serves a systematic way of educating people especially the youth. We must not forget that our capacity to think with the utmost sensibility is generated by our unconscious embrace of discipline and teachings in school. No matter how much we admit on not having a choice but to deal with academic tasks that take up considerable time and energy from us, at some point later, wherever we are or howsoever we come to be, a spur of wisdom pops to us and renders us capable of drawing inexplicable insights. It may be a little difficult to justify such statement without actual encounter yet certainly, a natural wonder of sound intellect is not something that Steve Jobs, Bill Gates, or Paul Allen could afford to impart to an individual who is after a deeper sense of fulfillment in life. Definitely, I would never want myself nor my children and even my children’s grandchildren to miss on the fundamentals of sciences, mathematics, history, and classic literature to delight wi th for subjects like these are priceless and can only be delivered with heart by a faculty that believes and discerns the principles of good education more than those of material wealth. Attempts to resolve joblessness and associated educational demands should be held in great regard but never at the expense of one’s scholastic foundation which is highly essential in living, that there is no probable way it could

Answer 1 question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Answer 1 question - Essay Example On the other hand, in political science, the term legitimacy refers to the popular acceptance of the authority of the outside bodies by the governing body. The governing body has no option but to accept on the every authority that is given to it by the outside superior bodies. The governing body must just take them regardless of whether they favor the country citizens or not (Cohen, 2013). In political science, there are various relationships between the two states of sovereignty and the legitimacy. Some of these relationships include the following ones. First, in both countries that exercise either legitimacy or sovereignty, the governing bodies must have to stick by their legislative deadlocks. In a political state that uses the political sovereignty, they still have some small influential elites that all the governing bodies must adhere to. This is similar to a nation that exercises political legitimacy. They have no option other than just adhering to the authority of the governing regime. For example, in Chinese political philosophy, the political legitimacy of their rule in the government derived from the Heaven Mandate since the period of Zhou Dynasty. Due to legitimacy, those rulers who lost had no option but to accept that mandate was to rule over the people (Kalmo and Skinner, 2010). Other than that, the other relationship between the sovereignty and legitimacy is that, in both states, there is a regime that is final. In the political sovereignty, a body detects what appears to be interference from the outside bodies. The body then decides on what should exactly be done on that, and there is nobody that can object that. Similarly, in a political legitimacy state, there is a superior body that decides on what the body of governors should do and there is no other body has the authority to object that. Taking an example in the real situation, USA as a superior state that is in controls

HRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 3

HRM - Essay Example At this point comes in the HR Audit, that refers to â€Å"the systematic verification of job analysis and design, recruitment and selection, orientation and placement, training and development, performance appraisal and job evaluation, employee and executive remuneration† and the other HR functions such as â€Å"motivation and morale, participative management, communication, welfare and social security, safety and health, industrial relations, trade unionism, and disputes and their resolution.† (citehr.com) In simpler terms, HR Audit, similar to a financial and accounting audit is the review of the employees of the organization that helps to review and assess the relationship between the employees and the organization in terms of their best contribution to achieve the goals, of both, the organization and each individual employee. HR Function in GS Plumbing To date, GS Plumbing hasn’t conducted an HR Audit for their employees. They have 18 plumbers working for the m, and the four members of the senior management – Greg Smith, Alan Arrowsmith, Jane Brown and Gail White. It would be recommended to the management of GS Plumbing to conduct an HR Audit of not just the plumbers but all the members of the management as well. An HR Audit will be beneficial to the organization in the following ways: The management will be able to identify the contribution of every employee to the organization and vice versa. It will help to identify problems that may be arising and nip them in the bud. Employees will feel motivated as the management is taking a personal interest in each of them. Also, the employees will get a chance to personally speak out any sort of concerns they have. An HR audit will give the management confidence about their employees. They will know where there are gaps and will be able to device systems to close them. (humanresources.hrvinet.com) In the case of GS Plumbing, everyone should be involved in the HR Audit, from Greg Smith and the rest of the management, right to the plumbers working on part time and job sharing basis. It will show the rest of the employees that they are all on the same ground and all of them are equally responsible and accountable to GS Plumbing as an organization. Also, everyone is not perfect and an HR Audit will find out mistakes that people might be making and will help them by giving them solutions to fix it. Unplanned Employee Absence Massive absenteeism and illnesses could impact negatively on many lost working hours and medical insurance expense (Charles and Kell 2006). Employees of GS Plumbing are calling in sick regularly and not planning their absence. This creates a lot of problems for GS Plumbing, such as: It affects the daily allocation of duties. It disrupts the work routine of the organization. It could lead to the employees feeling pressurizes and over worked when they have to cover for their absent colleagues. It could disrupt team based and training activities that ma y have been planned for the employees’ benefit. (Lingham 2007) Also, repeatedly taking unplanned leaves is not a very ethical practice. An employee may be genuinely sick but it is hard for the management not to have a little doubt about the employees’ real reason for having taken a leave of absence at the last minute. There are various reasons an employee might have to take leave from work at the last

Federalism and Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Federalism and Business - Essay Example A federal system is favourable than a unitary one because the state territories can be used as laboratories to try out business policy changes such as several fusions of laws, technological adjustments and tax policies. New policies are important to promote competitiveness as time goes by. It is easier for a federal government to perform experiments on policy changes since it can use a selected state as a ‘lab rat’. This experimentation phenomenon has been successfully used severally in the UK in health, education and economic policies (Martin & Sanderson, 1999, 249). If a policy leads to better business performance in the selected state, it can then be used throughout the regions. If disastrous, the federal government can correct or control the effects more economically unlike a central government. Centralized governments employ more of similar policies in the entire area of governance. They are therefore reluctant to try out new policies due to extensive risks likely t o affect the entire economy (Rich & William, 2002, 58). State governments have more information on their constituents’ needs than the central government. Presumably, decentralized governments are closer to their constituents and are more likely to have better knowledge of local cost conditions and preferences. If such information is publicized, businesses can be able to take advantage of the market niche that needs to be filled. Even though the central government can theoretically employ local agents, they will probably have less political incentive to put into account their constituents’ needs above those of local government agents. The states will therefore have a relative advantage over the central government in experimentation and creating variation.... The states will therefore have a relative advantage over the central government in experimentation and creating variation. Federalized governments are better supervisors of business and business related activities. This is as a result of reduction in complexities associated with bureaucracies in centralized governments. Federal governments can therefore be said to be more effective in performing their supervisory duties to the public. According to Lord Bryce in Zavodnyik, 2011 (p65 - 68), the growth in civil order in the United States has been as a result of state governments ability to closely monitor affairs of the citizens than congress was. As per Zavodnyik, this is one of the factors which drove USA to being one of the largest and most organized economies in the world. The US through its states system can better enforce business contracts in the states. It can also perform more effective control in the respective state markets due to ‘closeness’ of the government to the people. This reduces counterfeits and the number of transactions performed in the black market. Fabbrini 2009, in the book ‘Democracy and Federalism in the European Union and the United States: Exploring Post-National Governance’ seconds this pointing the US and UK as the countries with the lowest levels of counterfeit products in their territorial markets. Even though the governments may use the federal government to reduce illegal trades in order to maximize on the amount of taxes it collects, this promotes businesses whose markets are put at risk by counterfeits and illegal transactions which are expensive (European Center for Security Studies, 2010, 103). This creates a conducive breeding ground for businesses since it means less bureaucracy and red tape measures which

The Theory Of Gentrification Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Theory Of Gentrification - Essay Example The theory of gentrification and the rent gap (Smith 1979), suggests there has been a great deal of pressure for change in some parts of the city. This paper argues that history matters to how gentrification unfolds in Boston and this explains the pressures that have led to change in that Boston’s gentrifying neighborhoods. Smith (1979, 538) states that after a period of sustained deterioration, many cities in America are experiencing gentrification of certain central city neighborhoods. He states that the initial signs of revival in the 1950s grew in 1960s and by 1970s had caused widespread gentrification that affected most of the older cities in the country. The earlier issues of sustained deterioration acted that occurred in American cities over time shows a historical aspect that influenced the changes in terms of gentrification in the country. The signs of revival that were recorded in the American cities between the 1950s and the 1960s represent the pressures that led to the cities’ gentrifying neighborhoods. Lewis (1979, 23) states, â€Å"History matters to the structure and look of a landscape. We inherit a landscape, which forms the basis for any changes, or developments we subsequently make. Change itself is uneven (historically lumpy).† Lewis clearly shows that history contributes to the manner in which a landscape changes. A landscape cannot just change without an influence. There must be some past issues that influence how a city changes. The history might be desirable or not but either of them influences how a city changes. If the history is desirable, it will contribute to positive change in terms of improvement from the past. However, if the history is undesirable, it will influence the city to change considerably aiming for desirable outcomes. However, this does not mean that the change must be consistent because generally, change is uneven. In Boston, for instance, history has played a major factor in terms of is gentrification. Originally, the city was a forested land.

The Phantom of the Opera Essay Example for Free

The Phantom of the Opera Essay The future ruler of United Kingdom is about to pop into this world any time soon, and his or her parents, not to mention the whole world, are already excited. Indeed, Kate Middleton and Prince William seem like the eager and loving about-to-be parents that they are that its almost hard to imagine that they almost didnt end up together. Remember their controversial split in 2007? Four years after William and Kate started dating, the two had split in March 2007, not giving any reason why. Reports only claimed that their breakup was amicable and mutually agreed upon, but there were speculations that the royal bachelor preferred to act like one rather than be tied to one girl. So what was the real reason why the two separated and subsequently reunite? The answer, according to a new book titled Kate by Marcia Moody, is because William decided to take a different direction from his father, Prince Charles. When his father Charles was wooing Diana and the relationship reached a crossroads, Prince Philip told him that he needed to take action one way or another. And Charles proposed, excerpts of the book obtained by the Daily Mail read. â€Å"When William was faced with a similar dilemma, he went the other way So he celebrated his newly obtained freedom by standing on a table at a club and shouting Im free! while surrounded by a bevy of nearly naked beauties. And while William got drunk and partied hard, Kate consoled her broken heart by signing up for a charity challenge with an all-female dragon boat racing crew called the Sisterhood. She attended other functions, and even had gone to parties that touted her singlehood, but it was with the Sisterhood that helped distract her from the pain. Kate was very down and I think the training became her therapy. Kate had always put William first and she said this was a chance to do something for herself, her fellow rower Emma Sayle said in the book. William, meanwhile, was having second thoughts. Mindful, perhaps, of the decision his father had made when he was in his 20s and failed to marry his early love Camilla, William did not want to make the same mistake. Kate, however, needed some convincing. He had broken her heart and she wanted to make sure that if they did get back together it would be for the right reasons, and that things would change, the book reads. The two eventually got back together after a few months, but they didnt regret their time apart, however short that was. We were both very young we were both finding ourselves and being different characters. It was very much trying to find our own way and we were growing up so it was just a bit of space and it worked out for the better, William has been quoted as saying. Four years later on April 29, 2011, the two became husband and wife as they exchanged vows at the Westminster Abbey in London. And any day now, their first born will make his or her appearance on earth. According to reports, they havent named their little bundle of joy yet; they dont even know if theyre having a girl or a boy. But whatever gender they get, their child already has an impressive title attached to his or her name. The royal couples child will officially be known as His or Her Royal Highness Prince or Princess of Cambridge, a rep for Kensington Palace told Us Weekly.

The Impact Of Structural Adjustment Programmes In Africa Finance Essay

The Impact Of Structural Adjustment Programmes In Africa Finance Essay Illustrating your answer with specific examples, evaluate the impact of structural adjustment programmes on agriculture in southern Africa. Introduction The impact of Structural adjustment programs (SAPs) on the performance of Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) has been deeply investigated and, despite what the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank claimed, adjustment policies have often had a negative impact on the poorest and most vulnerable sections of the regions population. In particular, The SAPs in Africa have certainly contributed to some changes in the agricultural sector: in a continent where more than 70 percent of the population is involved in agriculture, the last two decades have seen a relatively poor sectors performance, opposed to the post-independence condition of self-sufficiency of most of the regions countries (Mkandawire and Bourenane, 1987). This essay will look more deeply into some of the impacts of SAPs on agriculture, focusing on the experience of Zambia as an example of IMF adjustment programs which failed to fully address the nature of the countrys economic crisis, caused by both external causes and domestic policy shortcomings. After a brief introduction on the economic situation of the country and the factors that led to the adoption of SAPs, the essay will proceed by evaluating some of the main ways in which agriculture has been affected by structural adjustment programs, looking in particular at the consequences on production patterns as well as on the people involved in agriculture. The last section draws conclusions. I. During the last century, the role of agriculture in the Zambian economy and the policies associated to it have greatly varied. The country went from a flourishing self-sufficient agriculture of the pre-colonial period, to a neglected rural sector and a copper-dependent economy during the colonial period, to a return to agriculture as a way out of the economic crisis. During the colonial period (1890-1964), agricultural activity was divided among two classes of farmers: European settler farmers, supported by the state through advantageous policies, and African subsistence peasant farmers, used mainly as a labour reservoir, and to which access to good land was restricted (Mwanza, 1992). At this time, the role of agriculture was especially supportive to the provision of low priced food and cheap supplies of labour to the expanding industrial economy (ILO, 1987). Maize was the principal commodity constituting 90 percent of all marketed cereals, accompanied by secondary export commodities such as coffee, cotton, tobacco and groundnuts. At independence, the United National Independent Party (UNIP) attempted to diversify the economy by developing agriculture to secure food self-sufficiency and reduce the dependence on the copper industry. A single-channel marketing system, fixed agricultural producer prices, and subsidies in the maize area are examples of the policies put in place to offset the damage caused by an already declining mining industry (Mkandawire and Bourenane, 1987). However, such policy experiments did not reach their objectives, and Zambia went through economic deterioration in the 1970s due to both external shocks (oil crises and falling prices of copper), and inefficient domestic economic policies (e.g. a static and inflexible economic structure) (Seshamani, 1990). The government started to borrow in order to maintain the same levels of import, increasing the countrys indebtedness that reached unacceptable levels, for a total of almost $4.5 billion a t the end of 1982 (Jansen and Rukovo, 1992). With no significant recovery of the economy, the increasing budget deficit obliged the government to start getting conditional loans within the framework of the IMF/WB SAPs. II. A first series of SAPs was adopted in Zambia between 1983 and 1987, with the aim of restoring the countrys financial stability through trade liberalization, currency devaluation, and reduction of government spending, including the removal of food and input subsidies (Saasa, 1996). Preliminary liberalization took place in the years 1983-1985, when a foreign exchange auction system was introduced. The IMF/WB program collapsed in 1987, mainly due to the unsustainable depreciation of the domestic currency (the Kwacha) that fell from a pre-auction rate of K 2.20 per US$ to K 21 per US$ of the last auction (Wulf, 1988). After a brief attempt by the Kaunda government to put up its own New Economic Recovery Programme between 1987- 1989, Zambia went back to the IMF/WB SAP starting from 1989, and the reform periods went on with the following government. In agriculture, the SAP aimed at promoting agricultural exports, improving food production and limiting government intervention in the market (Simatele, 2006). Before the introduction of SAPs, the government put in place highly subsidized measures to assist agricultural production growth such as crop-marketing depots that reached the entire country, the introduction of fixed crop prices, and provision of tractor ploughing services, credit and fertilizer (Jansen and Rukovo, 1992). Such measures were replaced by agricultural adjustment policies that included the removal of subsidies, food prices decontrol, abolition of equity pricing, and liberalization of agricultural marketing (Mwanza, 1992). During the short period of the New Economic Recovery Programme, the Kaunda government failed to support agricultural development, and not surprisingly, given the fact that the same measures which undermined agricultural production and which led to foreign borrowings were re-adopted: revaluation of the kwacha, food subsidies, and price controls. But lets look at the consequences of reforms in more detail. The introduction of SAPs in Zambia affected agriculture in a number of ways. This essay will focus on the consequences on food production (in particular on changes in the cropping patterns), and on the people that practice agriculture, especially smallholders. The reforms had an impact on food production and cropping patterns due to two main factors: first, an increase in agricultural production costs, and second, a decrease in access to credit. Production costs rose in Zambia following a decrease in (i) the exchange rate, and (ii) agricultural subsidies. The countrys food production is dependent on the exchange rate especially in terms of input prices. The newly adopted foreign exchange auction system (1985) made it difficult for the government to plan a consistent pricing policy, and agriculture, as a priority sector for the economic restructuring, was uncompetitive in the foreign exchange auctions. As a consequence of the auctioning, the local currency (Kwacha) depreciated, increasing the prices of imported goods and inflation. Whereas a 50kg bag of fertilizer cost K26.75 during the 1984/5 season, it rose to K48 during the 1985/6 season (Sano, 1988). This had a strong impact on the very import sensitive Zambian farming. First, the production of the main crop, maize, is heavily dependent on imports of fertilizers and other items such as empty grain bags. Even though Zambia needs less fertilizer than other countries, as Mal awi, due to the abundance of good arable land, such input is by far the most important and most costly used, especially by small farmers. Second, petrol and trucks for the transport of agricultural produce must also be imported. These inputs are highly necessary in a country with a low level of population density and a skewed pattern of urbanization. As a consequence of exchange rate auctioning, production costs rose, and farm gate maize prices became less favourable, especially for small-scale maize producers in peripheral areas of the country (Jansen and Rukovo, 1992). With increasing input prices, the government, in order to maintain production, was obliged to augment producer prices correspondingly: maize reached K55 per bag in the1985/6 season (Sano, 1988). This, together with good weather conditions, contributed to the rise of agricultural output at a level of 9 percent of GDP in 1985 (Wulf, 1988). However, due to a higher rate of population growth, GDP was still declining. Th e rise of producer prices has been certainly beneficial, but the absence of infrastructural improvements and other consequences of liberalizations such as high inflation undermined output improvements. Before the reform period, the government both delivered inputs to, and collected outputs from farmers, even in the more remote areas. However, with the introduction of the SAPs in the 1980s, subsidies connected to agricultural production were severely reduced. Removal of food subsidies, previously put in place mainly to provide cheap food for urban residents, did not affect poor farmers (Sahn, 2004). However, the removal of other subsidies such as those on transport and on inputs did have an impact on agriculture, and especially on smallholders. The reduction of transport subsidies undermined farmers access to markets and increased the cost of production. Both small and large farmers were adversely affected by transport subsidy removals, but while large scale farmers suffered less from the price increase due to their closeness to markets and roads, the remoteness of many smallholders further increased their costs of production. Village processing was replaced by large-scale mills, ad ding extra transportation costs that, together with the absence of subsidies, made the food system highly inefficient, negatively affecting rural residents and their produce. Agricultural production was also affected. Being maize the major and most commercialized food crop in the country, its dependence on factors such as distance to markets and credit is higher than for other crops. As a study by the African Economic Research Consortium shows, maize has a negative response to distance from the market (Simatele, 2006). On the contrary, other crops such as cassava have mainly local basic markets, and their production is not as much affected by the removal of transport subsidies. The de-subsidization of agricultural inputs, as for example input credit or less costly fertilizer, also had an impact on agriculture. Their removal entailed a credit squeeze and caused an increase in production costs, negatively affecting especially small-scale food production. A second factor that had an impact on food production was the decline of access to credit. Before the introduction of SAPs, agricultural credit was provided by government-owned companies such as the Agricultural Finance company (AFC), and by commercial banks. Although commercial farmers have mainly financed their operations through private banks, smallholders have relied mostly on government loans, because of the low repayment rates connected to it. With the liberalization of the financial markets, credit and its pricing was no longer controlled, and farmers had to compete with other potential borrowers to get it. Credit provision was left mainly to the private sector, that failed in filling the gap. For smallholders it has been very difficult to obtain loans from financial institutions, both because of their exposition to high risks (i.e. physical conditions of the environment, health problems), and because of their isolation (poor transportation and communications). Because the pri vate sector often refused to serve the rural areas, the opportunity was left to local moneylenders, if present, to exploit their monopolistic positions and charge the small farmers high interest rates. In any case, interest rates escalated, causing a problem for loan repayment: from 43 percent in 1990, to 46 percent in 1991 (Geisler, 1992). In Solwezi District in the North Western Province, the progression of interest rates charged by Lima Bank during the 1993/94 cropping season reached 120% in September,1993 (Kajoba, et al,1995, p.9). Attempts to solve the problem of credit access, included those leaving smallholder credit provision to the private sector, most of the times resulted inefficient and failed. An example of such attempts is the launch of the Agricultural Credit Management Programme (ACMP) in 1994, which was meant to support the private sector in credit provision by giving fertilizers and seeds on credit through credit managers who would in turn provide these inputs to f armers through local credit coordinators (Pletcher, 2000). The ones that mostly benefited from this system have been the stockists and traders at the expense of smallholders. The problem of credit provision with liberalization continues to exist, and will probably persist as long as the private sector and the government do not reach an agreement on the development of efficient input supply networks. It is clear that SAPs in Zambia had a negative impact primarily on the smallholder subsector, that between 1980 and 1994 contributed about 40 percent of the agricultural output (Chiwele et al., 1998). The increase of production costs and the decrease in access to credit have introduced new difficulties for smallholders disposing of less means to overcome adverse conditions than commercial farmers. Moreover, while commercial farming systems are concentrated along the rail line, remote farmers, once relying on support of the state, have been cut off as the private sector was not able to fill the gap caused by liberalization. The new private sector-led marketing system initiated in 1992, in fact, has not so far been successful in carrying out its functions to the same extent as the cooperatives previously did. Most traders own very little transport and storage facilities and tend to depend on hired material. The bigger constraint, however, has been traders lack of access to capital. As a consequence of the marginalization of remote farmers, volatility and desperate selling right after the rains have increased, leading to a decrease of selling prices and a affecting of the market (Chiwele et al., 1998). Concerning cropping patterns, the adoption of SAPs and the cost increase have contributed to the rise in production of other crops as millet, sorghum, and cassava. In fact, even though today maize is still grown in large quantities in Zambia, from 1980 to 2005 Cassava production went from 360000 to 1056000 tons, while millet production from 20000 to 29583 tons (FAOSTAT, 2010). The area planted to maize declined 43 percent between 1989 and 1999. During the same period, the area planted to cotton increased by 65 percent, and the area for groundnuts grew by more than 100 percent (Mukherjee, 2002, p.27-28). Smallholders withdrawal from maize cultivation might be considered as a threat, in the sense that it would negatively affect the policy of self sufficiency in maize, leading to the need of importing the crop from the neighbouring countries (Sano, 1988). In mid-1987, only about 6.5 million bags of maize were expected from current harvest, necessitating large and costly imports of the s taple once again (Good, 1988, p.45). However, the introduction of maize as the main commercial crop was a post-independence policy that encouraged inefficiency and lack of differentiation by giving incentives to the farmers to move away from the production of other crops into maize. But the ecology of the country makes it more suited for certain crops than others, according to the area of cultivation. Maize is ecologically suited to less than half of the country, and requires new skills and large labour and capital inputs in comparison to other starch staples (Mkandawire and Bourenane, 1987, p. 292). The dominance on one crop partially explains why less than 20 percent of the countrys arable land was under cultivation (Saasa, 1996). In the period pre-SAPs, the government introduced rural development programs that promoted the cultivation of maize as a cash and food crop. Rising subsidies have coincided with the rapid advance of maize production, even in areas where it previously had a minor role (i.e. parts of the Northern Province). Such policy made small-scale farmers dependent on the government, on both subsidies provision (as those on fertilizers, transport, marketing and credit), and on a single cereal (Kajoba, 2009). Adjustment reforms have shifted the attention to competing grains and tubers i.e. millet, sorghum, and cassava for a number of reasons. First, these crops are generally cultivated with little or no chemical dressings, requiring much less inputs (Kydd, 1988). Second, they have mainly local basic markets, and their production is not so much dependent on transport services, and therefore subsidies. This also affects the issue of access to markets, which has been decreasing for smallholders with the liberalization reforms. Third, these crops are drought resistant and more traditional in some parts of the country than maize, and their production might contribute to an increased efficiency on the food system, as harvest fluctuations might be red uced and marketed food supply might be more regular. Also, alternative crops sometimes have non-monetary credit available, allowing easier forms of repayment by farmers. For these reasons, a gradual move away from maize might even be beneficial to agriculture to some extent, as it could contribute to an increased efficiency of the food system. Moreover, in the long term, an increase in the production of cheap un-subsidized food could provide a more sustainable solution. CONCLUSION This essay has looked at some of the main consequences on agriculture of policy reform measures undertaken through structural adjustment programmes in Zambia. Both production patterns and smallholder farmers were affected by the reforms. Production costs rose following a decrease in the exchange rate and in agricultural subsidies, and access to credit decreased following liberalization. These patterns negatively affected especially small-scale farmers, unable to cope with increasingly adverse production conditions, while left the bigger, commercial farmers closer to the market better off. Improvements in the small-scale sector have further been undermined by problems in the provision of agricultural support services by private actors. Alternative crops are increasingly grown as a consequence of rising production costs related to maize, and this pattern might provide a solution for a more sustainable and more efficient food system. Certainly, the countrys situation pre-SAPs and the in efficiency of its agricultural policies required some kind of reforms: a food system focused on maize, a structure of production and consumption along the line of rail and in the copperbelt, a transport system sustained by subsidies and an export agriculture affected by an overvaluation of the exchange rate (Sano, 1988). However, the enforcement of a standard package of policy measures has proven unsuccessful in addressing the nature of Zambias economic crisis. SAPs focused excessively on price policy reforms, that have been not able to induce agricultural growth alone. Price stabilisation programmes need to be carefully designed so as not to turn into a fiscal drain and an obstacle to production diversification. Reforms in agriculture are still taking place and policies are therefore still changing. Credit access, input markets design and the way through which institutions can enhance smallholder agriculture are areas that require a particular attention when formulating policies th at will enhance the countrys agricultural potential.

black women and stds :: essays research papers

BLACK WOMEN AND STDS Many African-American women who live in rural areas do not perceive themselves as being at great risk for contracting HIV,new study results suggest. Consequently, these women may engage in more sexually risky behaviors than their urban and suburban counterparts, researchers report. "Much more work with low-income rural women of color needs to be conducted regarding HIV prevention needs and how best to respond to those needs," lead study author Dr. Richard A. Crosby of the Rollins School of Public Health at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, told Reuters Health. "This is an important population of women who can clearly benefit from increased HIV prevention efforts." Crosby and his team surveyed 571 low-income African-American Missouri residents. About one quarter of the respondents lived in rural counties, while the majority lived in urban or suburban areas. Rural women were twice as likely as urban or suburban women to say that they did not have a preferred way to prevent HIV or sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), because they "don't worry about HIV or STD," the investigators report in the April issue of the American Journal of Public Health, journal of the American Public Health. The women who lived in rural areas were also two times more likely to report never using condoms or not using condoms because they believed that their partner did not have HIV--regardless of whether or not their partner had actually been tested for the virus. And these women were twice as likely to report that their past or current partner had not been tested for HIV. "Because this belief (that their partner did not have HIV) was based on something other than the partner's HIV test, the finding suggests that rural women may be more likely than non-rural women to 'take their partners' word' that they are HIV negative," the authors write. Rural study participants were about half as likely as their non-rural counterparts to report that they had ever been diagnosed with syphilis or gonorrhea. They were also about twice as likely to report not having received counseling about HIV during their last pregnancy, the report indicates. Overall, however, the reason for the discrepancy in HIV beliefs and prevention practices between urban and rural women may be because "HIV is less salient, as a threat, among rural women," Crosby speculated.

Architecture :: essays research papers

An architect designs and sometimes supervises the construction of buildings. Anything from tunnels that run far beneath the ground, to skyscrapers that tower above it, architects have always had a hand in building these great structures. Yes, you too can be an architect! But how, you ask? Just read on, and you will find out! Architects have designed the greatest buildings in history, from the stoic World Trade Center in New York, to the graceful and natural Falling Waters house in Pennsylvania, building styles differ as much as the architects who build them. One of the most famous architects is Frank Lloyd Wright, who designed the aforementioned Falling Waters and also the Robie house in Illinois. He is often considered the most creative architect of our time for his use of natural surroundings and building materials found in nature. No other man has made such an impact on architecture as Frank Lloyd Wright. Architects can work in a variety of conditions, but most work in office buildings that contain architectural firms of about three to six people. However, sometimes the job demands that an architect go out on the actual building site to supervise construction. This is a minor inconvenience to the architects, but on a general scale, architects have extremely comfortable surroundings that promote less stress among them. Often, and more so nowadays, architectural firms are adopting CAD programs, or Computer Aided Design as the main tool for designing buildings. It provides an easy to use interface over the previous pencil and paper method. As a result, CAD software is growing vastly in usage and many colleges are now offering courses just in CAD. Often, architects have to make considerations before the actual design phase of any building. The most important of these is cost. If a building is made of cheaper building materials, the architectural firm gets more money from the buyer. Other considerations are the style of the building, which depends heavily upon the surrounding buildings, not to mention the environment, functionality, elevations, and zoning regulations. The zoning regulations limit the size and shape of the building so that it doesn’t interfere with the area around the building and the overall skyline of the neighborhood. Often, zoning regulations are a large problem in major cities, and architects either have to compromise with the zoning authority or have the building not be built at all. These compromises are an annoyance for architects and make life a little interesting for these public servants. Usually, in any job, the closer you are to a city, the more money you make. In the case of architects, this is especially true.

Military Downsizing

Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER What Options Might the Pentagon Consider When Discussing the Downsizing of the Services as Well as Change Overseas Basing Richard Giadone Columbia Southern University MBA 5652 Research Methods Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER Permanently stationing forces overseas gives the U. S. military a strategic advantage–but at a price. That price is paid not only in terms of budgetary cost but in terms of the personnel, units, and equipment needed to support forces stationed outside the United States. We will compare the U. S. forces stationed in Europe and East Asia against the monetary and personnel cost of keeping them there. Forward Based Versus Forward Deployed Forces The U. S. forces can be maintained overseas on either temporary or a permanent basis. Units or personnel that are in a foreign country on a permanent basis are said to be forward based or forward stationed. In contrast, units and their associated personnel that are in a foreign country for a limited time, typically six months or a year, while taking part in exercises or operations are said to be forward deployed. An example of such forces is those now deployed in Afghanistan for Operation Enduring Freedom. ) Although the distinction may appear to be minimal, it has important consequences for military forces and personnel. Forward Based Units Units that are permanently based outside the United States remain in place while individuals assigned to the units come and go. For example, the 2nd Infantry Division (2nd I D) has been stationed in South Korea since the 1950s, as a result of the Korean War armistice. While the division, with its headquarters and subordinate units, remain in place, some 13,000 Army soldiers rotate through it on one-year unaccompanied tours. The services are now allowing families to accompany service members to Korea for two Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER year tours. Korea has an 8% personnel turnover each month. And, 20% of all Soldiers on assignment to Korea never show. In other locations, such as Germany, U. S. military personnel serve three year tours with units stationed there and can bring their families with them. With the help of allies, the United States has built up large infrastructures overseas to support forward stationed units, assigned personnel, and their families. Almost all overseas bases that permanently house large numbers of U. S. service members include all of the amenities of bases in the United States, such as commissaries, chapels, exercise facilities, and post offices. In addition, in places where families may accompany service members, the Department of Defense (DoD) has established schools for military dependents. In Germany alone, DoD runs 70 schools for more than 30,000 children who are dependents of U. S. military personnel and DoD civilians. Another aspect of forward based units is that personnel serving with them are considered on permanent assignment instead of temporary duty and thus undergo a â€Å"permanent change of station† (PCS) when they move from an assignment in the United States to an assignment overseas. In a PCS move, service members can take along their household goods (including automobiles) at the government's (taxpayer’s) expense, regardless of whether they are accompanied by family members. The fact that personnel are assigned to, and move in and out of forward based units on an individual basis creates continual turnover in those units. With the three-year tours common in Germany, one-third of the individuals in a particular unit will turn over every Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER year and the entire population will turn over in three years. Moreover, when individuals complete a tour with a forward-based unit, they are generally assigned to a different unit in the United States than the one they served in before going overseas. Forward Deployed Units Forward deployed forces, such as those now in Afghanistan or Kosovo, are overseas on a temporary basis only. The United States does not anticipate having forces stationed in Iraq or Afghanistan for the next 50 years, as it has done in Germany. Rather, it anticipates that once Afghanistan is secure, U. S. troops will be withdrawn and not replaced. As a consequence, the United States has no plans to build elaborate bases to house U. S. forces in Afghanistan. Likewise, for the most part, military personnel are not assigned to duty in Afghanistan the same way they are to duty in South Korea or Germany. If a unit based in the United States, such as the 25th Infantry Division, is assigned to duty in Afghanistan for nine months to a year, all of the personnel associated with the division who are eligible will deploy to Afghanistan for the length of the tour. Neither soldiers' personal belongings (excluding some individual items) nor their families will accompany them. Furthermore, as much as possible, all of the individuals assigned to the unit will deploy and stay with it for the entire period and return to the home base together. Those deployed forces are often included in tallies of U. S. forces overseas, but in fact they are officially considered to be overseas on a temporary basis, even though some operations supported by rotational deployments have continued for years    Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER U. S. Forces Based in Europe The United States has about 100,000 military personnel forward based in Europe. The bulk of them are stationed in Germany, where the United States has maintained forces since the end of World War II, originally as an occupation force and later as part of NATO's defense during the Cold War. Although the size of U. S. forces in Europe declined by two thirds after the tearing down of the Berlin Wall, the need to maintain the current levels is being questioned by some defense analysts and Administration officials. Army Forces The Army accounts for about 60 percent of active duty U. S. personnel stationed in Europe. Despite significant cuts in those personnel after the unification of Germany and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the 1990s, the Army continues to base two of its 10 divisions and one of its four corps in Europe. Thus, a significant portion of the Army's combat power is stationed on that continent, primarily in Germany. Nevertheless, the Army's combat units (divisions and brigades) account for less than half of the service's active duty personnel in Europe. The 1st Armored Division and the 1st Infantry Division (mechanized) has only two of its three combat brigades and about 12,500 of its total 16,000 personnel based in Germany. The Army's other combat unit in Europe–the 173rd Airborne Brigade, based in Vicenza, Italy–has about 1,000 personnel assigned to it. Thus, the Army's permanent active-duty combat forces in Europe total about 26,000 people. Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER Another 27,000 or so active-duty personnel are assigned to what the Army calls combat-support (CS) units, such as artillery, and combat-service-support (CSS) units, such as transportation. CS and CSS units provide various kinds of support to combat brigades and divisions. The other 7,000 or so active-duty Army personnel based in Europe are assigned to what could be termed administrative units, such as medical facilities, NATO headquarters in Brussels, and contracting agencies. In all, about 43 percent of Army forces in Europe are assigned to combat units, 45 percent to support units, and 12 percent to administrative duties. (The breakdown for Army forces in Germany is similar: 45 percent combat, 45 percent support, and 10 percent administrative. ) Army Bases The Army maintains an extensive network of bases in Europe, encompassing almost 300 installations. Like its personnel, the vast majority of the Army's overseas infrastructure (255 installations) is in Germany. The largest and some of the most expensive Army bases in Europe are at Grafenwoehr and Hohenfels, Germany. Those two training facilities–which provide ranges and space where Army units can practice tactics and maneuvers–cover 52,000 acres and 40,000 acres, respectively, and have a combined replacement value of more than $1. 5 billion. (6) The Army also maintains 33 barracks for unaccompanied soldiers and 36 â€Å"villages† for family housing in Germany, which have a replacement value of roughly $14 billion. Other Army installations in Germany include five hospitals, five hotels, 15 smaller training areas, nine airfields, four Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER depots, three golf courses, a Boy Scout camp, and a Girl Scout camp. That infrastructure is designed to enhance soldiers' morale and, to some extent, replicate the facilities and conveniences that would be found around many Army bases in the United States. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps Forces and Bases The other three services have fewer forces stationed in Europe than the Army does. In addition, they have not concentrated their forces and bases on that continent in Germany to the extent that the Army has. The Air Force maintains the second largest presence in Europe after the Army, with 34,000 active-duty personnel and 201 installations in 12 countries. The largest contingent (15,000 active-duty personnel) is based in Germany, but the Air Force also has relatively large numbers of people in the United Kingdom (10,000) and Italy (4,000). The service's major combat units are distributed similarly, with Germany, the United Kingdom, and Italy each hosting one fighter wing. The greatest numbers of Air Force installations in Europe are located in Germany. The base at Ramstein, Germany, is the main air hub for U. S. forces from all services flying to or from other parts of the world, including the United States and the Middle East. The Air Force also has strategically important installations in the United Kingdom and Greenland. The air bases at Mildenhall and Lakenheath in the United Kingdom were used extensively to support U. S. operations against Libya and during Operations Desert Storm and Iraqi Freedom. The Air Force's facility in Thule, Greenland, includes radar Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER that is designed to provide early warning of an intercontinental ballistic missile attack and is expected to be part of the Bush Administration's network of missile defenses. Thus, although the Air Force does not have as many installations in Europe as the Army does, several of its bases have played–and continue to play–major roles in supporting U. S. military operations. The Navy and Marine Corps, because of the nature of their activities, have a far smaller onshore presence. Neither service bases any combat forces on shore in Europe, although the Navy has 10,000 support and administrative personnel there, nor the Marine Corps has 1,000. (7) In addition, the Navy maintains 15 installations in Europe, including two air stations (in Iceland and Italy). U. S. Forces Based in East Asia and the Pacific After Europe, the region with the largest permanent U. S. military presence overseas is East Asia and the Pacific, where approximately 80,000 personnel are stationed (see Table 2-1). Virtually all of them are based in two countries: Japan, where all four services have a significant presence, and South Korea, where the Army and the Air Force have stationed combat forces. In addition, the Navy and Air Force maintain a small number of installations (and fewer than 1,000 permanent personnel) in Australia, Hong Kong, Indonesia, and Singapore. Army Forces Since the Korean War, the Army has maintained a major presence in South Korea, where 28,000 Army personnel are now based. Their mission is to enforce the 1953 Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER cease-fire that ended hostilities under the auspices of the United Nations as well as to deter an attack by North Korea–or, should deterrence fail, help to repel an invasion or mount a counterattack to expel the invading force. Today, the 2nd ID is stationed in northern South Korea with two of its combat brigades, accounting for about 13,000 troops. The division's third brigade is based at Fort Lewis, Washington. ) Of the other 15,000 Army personnel in South Korea, about 13,000 are assigned to combat-support and combat-service-support units that are part of the Eighth Army, which serves as the high-level command organization for the Army in South Korea. The remaining 2,000 Army personnel in that country are assigned to units that perform administrative ta sks. The Army's representation elsewhere in the region is limited to Japan, where about 2,000 personnel are stationed. Those forces provide forward presence and support for regional contingencies and are also charged with helping to defend Japan if necessary. They include one special-forces battalion, some CS and CSS units, and several hundred soldiers assigned to administrative units. Army Bases The Army has a total of 95 installations in East Asia–80 in South Korea and the rest in Japan. The most expensive Army installation in the region is Yongsan Garrison, located in the center of Seoul. It is home to 7,000 military personnel assigned to the headquarters of U. S. Forces Korea and other command organizations and has a replacement value of $1. 3 billion. The Army's 15 installations in Japan, which support a Running Head: WHAT OPTIONS MIGHT THE PENTAGON CONSIDER much smaller force, include a housing area, three ammunition depots, and other logistics facilities, such as a port, a pier, and a fuel-handling facility. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps Forces and Bases Although both the Navy and the Air Force have installations in several East Asian countries, their bases and forces are concentrated in Japan (see Appendix A for more details). On the basis of replacement value, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force installations in Japan represent 88 percent of the three services' investment in the region. Air Force. The Air Force has 23,000 airmen stationed in East Asia and the Pacific, with more than half of them based in Japan. Half of the personnel in Japan are assigned to support and administrative units, although 7,000 are associated with the tactical fighter units stationed there. In contrast, the majority of the 10,000 Air Force personnel stationed in South Korea are combat forces, associated with the two fighter wings based in that country. The Air Force maintains a total of 67 installations in Asia to support and house its forces. Japan hosts the majority of them (44) as well as several large or valuable installations, such as Kadena Air Base, the nearby Kadena Ammunition Storage Annex, and Misawa Air Base. Together, those three installations have a replacement value of $9 billion. Air Force installations in South Korea are not as extensive as those in Japan, but they include two large air bases: one at Kunsan on the western coast and one at Osan, less than 50 miles south of the North Korean border. Those two bases have a combined replacement value of about $3 billion. Navy. Since World War II, the Navy has had a significant presence and interest in East Asia. The base at Yokosuka, Japan–home to the Seventh Fleet and the aircraft carrier Kitty Hawk–is considered the Navy's largest and most strategically important overseas installation in the world. Furthermore, the Kitty Hawk's air wing, which is based in Japan when the carrier is in port, is the Navy's only forward-stationed air wing. All told, the Navy has about 6,000 personnel based on shore in Japan. To support its presence in Japan, the Navy maintains 12 installations, six of which are estimated to have a replacement value of more than $1 billion each. Its facilities at Yokosuka alone have a combined value of $5. 7 billion. The Navy also operates a base at Sasebo, which hosts an amphibious squadron, and a naval air facility at Atsugi. In all, the Navy's installations in Japan have an estimated replacement value of approximately $9 billion. Naval forces and installations in South Korea are much less extensive. Because the primary mission of U. S. Naval Forces Korea is to provide leadership and expertise in naval matters to area military commanders, there are no naval seagoing units permanently assigned to South Korea. Most of the Navy's facilities in South Korea are colocated with those of the Army at the Yongsan Garrison. Marine Corps. The Marine Corps's only division-sized unit stationed overseas–the III Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF)–has been based on the Japanese island of Okinawa since 1971. To support the 20,000 marines stationed in Japan, including the MEF's 17,000 personnel, the Marine Corps maintains two large installations: Camp Butler, which covers 78,500 acres (or about one-quarter) of Okinawa, and Iwakuni Air Station on the island of Honshu. Those two installations represent a total U. S. investment of $6. 5 billion. Concerns About the Current Basing of U. S. Forces Overseas Asserting that the current basing structure is incapable of meeting future U. S. needs, the Administration accelerated an ongoing strategic review of that structure. The goal of the review is to develop a plan for forward basing that will make U. S. forces more agile and better able to respond to an unpredictable and ever changing global geopolitical situation. Defense analysts outside the Administration have voiced similar criticisms of the military's current basing structure. Below are some of the concerns that have been raised from both inside and outside the Administration about the forward basing of U. S. forces. Issues Common to Various Services Some concerns apply, to varying degrees, to all four services and their bases outside the United States. Those concerns include frictions with host nations, the cost of maintaining forward bases, the ability of forces stationed overseas to respond to likely conflicts, and the enduring utility of U. S. installations overseas. Host Nation Conflicts. All of the services are subject to disputes with the governments of host nations and their citizens over land use and the proximity of U. S. forces to civilian population centers and activities. Conflicts about land use have arisen because U. S. bases that were originally in remote locations have become increasingly surrounded by suburban or urban development. An example is the land occupied by the U. S. Yongsan Garrison in what is now downtown Seoul, land that local South Koreans envision using for other purposes. I was stationed in Tongduchon Korea in 1998 and again in 2008. Within that 10 year timeframe remote U. S. training areas were turned into greenhouses and cities. In various places around the world, U. S. training exercises conducted near sizable local populations have disrupted the lives of residents because of noise, destroyed private property, and resulted in the loss of life through accidents. As U. S. military personnel come into closer proximity with spreading urban or suburban populations, such incidents could become more common and affect support for the continued presence of large U. S. forces on foreign soil. The Cost of Basing Forces Overseas Maintaining forward based forces entails a marginal cost, in part because installations overseas, particularly in Europe, are more expensive to operate and support than those in the United States. Additional marginal costs include the family separation pay given to military personnel on unaccompanied tours and the cost of moving active duty service members, their goods, and sometimes their dependents to and from assignments overseas. The Congressional Research Service estimated that the total annual cost of basing 100,000 U. S. forces from all services in Europe rather than the United States was on the order of $1 billion to $2 billion in 1996. The Ability of Forces Based Overseas to Respond to Likely Conflicts Administration officials have questioned whether U. S. orces that are stationed primarily in Germany and South Korea are positioned appropriately to respond to probable future conflicts. They argue that conflicts are much more likely to occur in Africa, Western Asia, or the Middle East than anywhere in Western Europe. Similarly, conflicts may occur in Asia at locations other than on the Korean Peninsula like the civil unrest that has occurred recently in Indonesia and t he Philippines. Although all of the services have personnel stationed in Germany and all but the Navy in South Korea, that concern is most relevant for the Army because of its oncentration of forces in those countries. Most of the Administration's public statements about altering the current basing of U. S. forces abroad appear to focus on Army units. The Utility of the Current Overseas Basing Structure Although Administration officials have questioned the usefulness of some of the military's existing overseas infrastructure, they have said that some bases have obvious enduring utility. For example, the Air Force's Ramstein and Osan air bases serve as major hubs in Germany and South Korea, respectively. Army and other personnel and some equipment pass through those facilities when they arrive from the United States or depart for other parts of the globe, such as the Middle East. Those large installations, in which the United States has invested heavily to expedite the movement of forces and equipment into and out of Europe and Asia, are of high strategic value, and the Administration has explicitly stated that it will retain them. The training areas at Grafenwoehr and Hohenfels, which provide facilities unavailable anywhere else in Europe, will also be retained. Issues Specific to the Army As noted above, various characteristics set the Army apart in terms of forward basing: it has far more personnel stationed overseas than any other service, those forces are located in places that appear to be legacies of the Cold War, and Army units require the most time and expense to be transported to conflicts away from where they are based. For those reasons, many concerns about the present U. S. basing structure focus on that service. Army Forces in Europe The main concern expressed by Administration officials about the Army forces now based in Europe seems to be the amount of time they would need to respond to a conflict in the region. Although the two Army divisions stationed in Germany were well placed to defend NATO from Soviet attack, they cannot deploy quickly to conflicts outside Germany. For example, three months elapsed between the decision to move the 1st Armored Division from Germany to Iraq in March 2003 and its arrival in that theater. Military and Administration officials have indicated that the need for U. S. intervention s much more likely in Africa, Eastern Europe, or Western Asia than in Western Europe. Statements by U. S. commanders in Europe suggest that the Administration may be assessing how to speed the deployment of U. S. forces to places such as Nigeria, Uganda, Azerbaijan, and Djibouti. (Nigeria and Baku, Azerbaijan, are sources of oil; Uganda and Djibouti are potential staging bases for conducting operations in Africa to counter instability and terrorism. ) As was the case with Iraq, moving a division, or even part of one, from Germany to any of those locations would take a considerable amount of time. The units in Germany are heavy divisions equipped with tanks and armored vehicles, so the most efficient way to transport their equipment is by sea. Moving one heavy brigade combat team from Germany to locations in Africa or the Caspian region would take between 20 days and a month, and transporting an entire division's equipment would take another four days in all cases, only about five days faster than moving the same types of units from the United States. Those lengthy deployment times have raised questions about the utility of the Army forces now based in Germany. Another issue concerning those forces is the cost of keeping them in Europe rather than at bases in the continental United States. The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimates that it costs about $1 billion more per year to maintain about 56,000 Army forces in Germany than if those troops were stationed in the United States–both because running bases and providing family housing and schools is more expensive in Germany than in the United States and because the Army must pay for overseas allowances and moves to and from assignments in Europe. If those forces are not needed to respond to any likely future conflict in the immediate region, observers might ask, why should the United States spend $1 billion each year to keep them there? Army Forces in South Korea Concerns about the 28,000 Army forces stationed in South Korea differ from those associated with Army forces based in Europe. Very few defense analysts question the need to keep substantial U. S. forces based in South Korea to deter North Korea from invading or attacking its southern neighbor. Instead, their concerns relate to four main issues: the condition and location of U. S. bases in South Korea, the instability in Army units that results partly from supporting large numbers of one year tours in South Korea, the quality of life of soldiers assigned to those tours, and whether Army units based in South Korea should be made more available to respond to conflicts elsewhere in the region. Problems with Bases in South Korea The condition and location of the Army's installations in South Korea are less than desirable. According to U. S. ilitary officials in that country, many of the Army's bases are obsolete, poorly maintained, and in disrepair, including some Quonset huts from the Korean War era that still house soldiers. Most lack the amenities found at other U. S. bases overseas, and soldiers assigned to them are authorized to receive hardship duty pay of $150 per month. In addition, Army bases in South Korea are relatively small, spread out, and vulnerable. Units of the 2nd ID are scattered among 17 installations located north of the capital, Seoul, and within 30 miles of the North Korean border. That area is well within range of North Korean artillery placed along the demilitarized zone (DMZ) that runs between the two countries. Should North Korea attack South Korea, U. S. forces at those bases would be vulnerable to barrages from large numbers of artillery tubes. Secretary of Defense Donald Gates has argued that removing U. S. soldiers from such an immediate threat would give them an advantage in surviving and responding to an attack. Another issue about U. S. bases in South Korea that has been raised recently concerns the large U. S. resence in the center of Seoul known as the Yongsan Garrison. That 640 acre installation was on the outskirts of the city when it was built, but it is now in downtown Seoul, occupying valuable real estate and causing tensions with the local populace. Instability in Army Units The need to support forces stationed in South Korea causes turbulence in Army units based in the continental United States (CONUS). Because duty in South Korea is conside red hazardous and bases there are poorly equipped, family members do not accompany 80 percent of the soldiers serving tours in South Korea. Unaccompanied tours are limited to one year to minimize family separation, which means that almost the entire population of Army personnel in South Korea turns over every year. That turnover has a ripple effect on Army units based in CONUS, which must provide soldiers to replace those leaving South Korea and integrate new personnel. CBO estimates that, on average, war fighting units in CONUS experience turnover of 37 percent of their enlisted personnel every year, as soldiers leave for tours outside the continental United States, take administrative assignments in places such as the Pentagon, or leave the Army altogether. Some Army officials have asserted that high turnover in Army units reduces their cohesion and war fighting capability. The need to replace virtually all of the enlisted personnel in South Korea each year contributes about 6 percentage points of the total 37 percent turnover in CONUS war fighting units, CBO estimates. Quality of Life in South Korea Maintaining Army forces in South Korea on unaccompanied tours adversely affects the quality of soldiers' lives by contributing to family separation. An enlisted soldier spending 10 years in the Army could, on average, expect to spend a total of . years on unaccompanied tours, according to CBO's calculations. Although that is a small percentage overall, some specialties and junior enlisted personnel are more heavily represented in South Korea than in the Army as a whole, so their numbers could be much higher. Serving on unaccompanied tours has been shown to decrease the likelihood that a soldier will reenlist, which means that maintaining fo rces in South Korea under current basing arrangements may have an adverse effect on retention. Availability of Army Units in South Korea Because the Army forces based in South Korea are generally viewed as a deterrent to hostile behavior by North Korea, the 2nd ID and its two brigades have been considered unavailable to participate in any operations outside the Korean Peninsula. (By contrast, Army units based in Germany have been used in operations in Bosnia, Kosovo, and Iraq. ) The unavailability of the 2nd ID results partly because the division is based far from transportation hubs and partly because its units, which include many bulky and heavy vehicles, are not easy to deploy elsewhere. Secretary Gates recently raised the possibility of realigning the Army's forces in South Korea to make them more suitable for use in regional contingencies throughout Asia. He proposed making those forces more mobile by replacing their heavy armored vehicles with lighter and more modern vehicles and by moving them closer to transportation hubs south of Seoul. As we consider the world’s current economic state, what are we to do with such a large institution? 1. | Most of the roughly 15,000 soldiers assigned to units in South Korea other than the 2nd ID also rotate through their units on one-year unaccompanied tours. However, approximately 10 percent of them are on accompanied tours, in which the Army pays to move soldiers' families to South Korea and provides facilities for dependents while the soldiers are on assignment there. Those tours typically last for two or three years. | 2. | Not all of the soldiers assigned to a division would deploy with it. On average, 4 percent of Army personnel are ineligible to deploy overseas at any given time for various reasons, such as pregnancy, other health concerns, and family emergencies. Additional soldiers–as many as 35 percent in peacetime–may be ineligible because of Army personnel policies designed to ensure soldiers' quality of life. For a discussion of Army deployment rates in peacetime, see Bruce R. Orvis, Deployability in Peacetime, DB-351-A (Santa Monica, Calif. : RAND, 2002). | 3. | Some attrition, necessitating individual replacements, will inevitably occur over a deployment of six to 12 months. | 4. | For example, the United States has provided a small force to support the peacekeeping efforts of the Multinational Force and Observers (MFO) in the Sinai Peninsula since 1982. Battalion-sized units of about 1,000 soldiers deploy for six-month assignments with the MFO. Similarly, units have been supporting operations in Bosnia and Kosovo on six-month deployments since 1996 and 1999, respectively. All told, the Army maintained an average of about 15,000 soldiers on operational deployments from 1997 through early 2001. | 5. | The third brigade of each of those divisions is based at Fort Riley, Kansas. Although the 1st Armored and 1st Infantry Divisions each have about 16,000 personnel assigned to them, when taking part in an operation they would typically be accompanied by several support units, which might include total of about 24,000 personnel. As a consequence, a division and its accompanying support units–known as a division slice–would include a total of about 40,000 personnel. | 6. | That and other replacement values cited in this study are based on data from Department of Defense, Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Insta llations and Environment, Department of Defense Base Structure Report: Fiscal Year 2003 Baseline (June 2003), available at www. defenselink. mil/news/Jun2003/basestructure2003. pdf. That publication lists the replacement values of current U. S. defense facilities, including excess facilities that the United States still owns. | 7. | The Navy and Marine Corps have additional personnel based on board ships that may be anchored in European waters. | 8. | For example, two South Korean girls were killed in 2003 when they were struck by an Army armored vehicle during training exercises. | 9. | Stephen Daggett, Defense Budget: Alternative Measures of Costs of Military Commitments Abroad, CRS Report for Congress 95-726F (Congressional Research Service, June 16, 1995). | 10. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps units can take a considerable amount of time to establish efficient operations in remote locations. Nevertheless, in some cases, they can provide a more rapid initial response than can Army forces that do not have staging bases near a conflict. | 11. | John T. Correll, â€Å"European Command Looks South and East,† Air Force Magazine, December 2003. | 12. | Ibid. | 13. | Vince Crawley, â€Å"Oil May Drive Troop Staging ,† Army Times, September 22, 2003, p. 30. | 14. | The reason is that U. S. transport aircraft (C-17s) can carry only one M1 tank at a time. Moving an entire heavy division would require about 1,500 C-17 flights, and moving one brigade combat team from the division would take up to 500 flights. Since the U. S. military is projected to have only about 140 C-17s by 2005, transporting heavy divisions and brigades by air is not practical. | 15. | Those numbers are explained in detail in Chapter 3. | 16. | General Accounting Office, Defense Infrastructure: Basing Uncertainties Necessitate Reevaluation of U. S. Construction Plans in South Korea, GAO-03-643 (July 2003), p. 5. | 17. | See David J. Lynch, â€Å"DMZ Is a Reminder of Status in Korean Crisis,† USA Today, December 23, 2003, p. 11; and Thom Shanker, â€Å"Gates Reassures Seoul on Regrouping G. I. s,† New York Times, November 18, 2003, p. A10. | 18. | Although most personnel sent to South Korea each year come from CONUS-based units (because the Army generally tries not to assign soldiers to back-to-back tours outside the continental United States), some are drawn from the pool of new recruits completing their training. | 19. | Personnel assignments and career tracks vary greatly between enlisted personnel and officers in the Army. This analysis focuses on the enlisted force because it represents the vast majority of Army personnel–approximately 400,000 out of the Army's total strength of about 480,000. | 20. | CBO used a model of personnel turnover in its analysis that is based on a model developed by RAND. In its analysis, RAND estimated similar rates for both total annual enlisted turnover and the contribution from the need to support tours in South Korea. See W. Michael Hix and others, Personnel Turbulence: The Policy Determinants of Permanent Change of Station Moves, MR-938-A (Santa Monica, Calif. RAND, 1998). | 21. | See General Accounting Office, Military Personnel: Longer Time Between Moves Related to Higher Satisfaction and Retention, GAO-01-841 (August 2001). | 22. | Robert Marquand, â€Å"U. S. Redeployments Afoot in Asia,† Christian Science Monitor, November 18, 2003. | http://www. eagleworldnews. com/2011/01/07/pentagon-plans-to-downsize-army-in-coming-years/ http://www. pacom. mil/we b/site_pages/uspacom/facts. shtml http://www. globalsecurity. org/military/ops/korea-orbat. htm http://www. stripes. om/news/pacific/korea/u-s-army-in-south-korea-begins-transformation-of-forces-1. 115890 Table 2-1. U. S. Bases and Forces Stationed in Europe and Asia | Forward-Based Personnel (Thousands) | Installations | | Combat| Support and Administration| Total| Total Number| Number with Replacement Value of More Than $1 Billion| Total Replacement Value (Billions of dollars)a| | Europe| Army|   | | Belgium| 0|   | 1|   | 1|   | 10|   | 0|   | 1|   |   | Germany| 25|   | 31|   | 56|   | 255|   | 3|   | 30|   |   | Italy| 1|   | 1|   | 2|   | 16|   | 0|   | 1|   |   | Other| 0|   | 1| 1|   | 13|   | 0|   | 1|   |   |   | Subtotal| 26|   | 34|   | 60|   | 294|   | 3|   | 33|   |   | Air Force| 14|   | 20|   | 34|   | 201|   | 5|   | 22|   | Navyb| 0|   | 10|   | 10|   | 15|   | 2|   | 7| à ‚  | Marine Corpsb| 0|   | 1|   | 1|   | 0|   | 0|   | 0|   |   | |   |   | Total | 40|   | 65|   | 105|   | 510|   | 10|   | 62|   |   | East Asia and the Pacificc| | Army|   | | Japan| 0|   | 2|   | 2|   | 15|   | 0|   | 3|   |   | South Korea| 13|   | 15|   | 28|   | 80|   | 2|   | 8|   |   |   | Subtotal| 13|   | 17|   | 30|   | 95|   | 2|   | 11|   |   | Air Force| 14|   | 10|   | 23|   | 67|   | 5|   | 18|   | Navyb| 0|   | 6|   | 6|   | 16|   | 6|   | 9|   | Marine Corpsb| 10|   | 10|   | 20|   | 2|   | 2|   | 6|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | Total| 37|   | 43|   | 79|   | 180|   | 15|   | 44|   | Source: Congressional Budget Office based on data from Department of Defense, Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Installations and Environment, Department of Defense Base Structure Report: Fiscal Year 2003 Baseline (June 2003), available at www. efenselink. mil/news/Jun2003/basestructure2003. pdf; Department of Defense, Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate of Information Operations and Reports, Department of Defense Active-Duty Personnel Strengths by Regional Area and by Country (309A) (September 30, 2002); and other Defense Department data. Note: More-detailed breakdowns for the Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps appear in Tables A-1 and A-2 in Appendix A. a. Includes the replacement value of excess facilities that the United States still owns.